I last mentioned 5 of my favorite reinforcers. Let me also add 5 of my favorite formats for receptively identifying pictures.

1. Place cards around the floor. Tell the child to "jump on the (apple)."
2. Hand child a fly swatter. Tell him to "slap the (apple)."
3. Laminate the cards or use objects. Fill a bucket with water. Tell the child to "dunk the (apple)."
4. Give child a flashlight and go in the bathroom. Tell him to "shine on (apple)."
5. Tape cards on the wall and give child a retractable metal pointer. Tell him to "point to (apple)."

Formats like these are sometimes considered more intrinsically motivating, at least for some children. However, we should be careful when we use the term motivation. Motivation is often used to refer to an internal state, but as behaviorists, we try to talk about what we can objectively see and measure. An objective analysis of the above motivational formats leads to a few helpful guidelines.

In my experience, the first three formats are motivating because the child's response is already reinforcing. Many children like to jump, slap with a fly swatter, or dunk objects in water. Like all forms of reinforcement, one must be careful of satiation. If a child continually receives the same reinforcer over and over, it will no longer be effective. Also, in order for the reinforcer to be effective, the child should only complete the response if he is going to be correct. If he is walking toward the incorrect picture, do not allow him to jump on it. If he picks up the wrong picture, do not let him dunk it in the water. Reinforcement should be contingent on correct responses. This can be a concern with the fly swatter. It can be difficult to determine in advance which picture the child will slap. Instructors may end up unintentionally reinforcing randomly slapping pictures until the correct picture is hit.

Second, the fourth format may be motivating because the child demonstrates interest in using a flashlight. That is, if one implemented a reinforcer assessment, one might find that the child picks the flashlight to go shine in the dark. If this is the case, then notice that instructors may be competing with a reinforcer that is already present (i.e., the child's ability to shine the flashlight wherever he wants) while trying to reinforce a correct response (i.e., the child shining the flashlight on a specific picture). For some children, initial prompting or the fact that they are already quickly learning to receptively identify labels may overcome this issue. But for other children, the format isn't practical.

Finally, the last format may be motivational for a number of reasons. Perhaps the child demonstrates interest in using the pointer, similar to the use of a flashlight. Perhaps the child's touching the picture is reinforcing, similar to slapping the picture with a fly swatter. Or, perhaps the format results in a change in other behaviors that are helpful to responding correctly. For example, the child may look at the cards for a longer period of time because they are in an unusual location (e.g., on the wall).

Considering what elements of a specific format may have an effect on a child's behaviors is an important part of treating motivation from a behavioral perspective. It's one thing to think you are teaching a skill by using a child's motivation. It's another to understand the relationship between the format and the child's behavior, and determine important guidelines to follow, based on that relationship.

By the way, I was introduced to some of these formats from an email discussion group called the Me-List back in 1997. If anyone knows who posted that original list, I'd love to know his or her name. Also, I'm curious if there are other formats that people have found useful and any important guidelines to keep in mind that are related to that format.